There are ten pathways to increased strength. Maximizing strength requires the full development of all ten attributes.
However, two concepts disrupt the apparent simplicity of the task:
- Diminishing Returns – The more one attribute is developed, the lower the payoff from even greater efforts to make further progress.
- Weakest Link – A strength test in an evaluation of the function of the overall system. Performance is, therefore, only as strong as the weakest area.
These are important considerations because we typically have limits on the time and energy we can devote to training. These constraints invite a third concept to consider: training economy.
Training Economy is the efficient use of time and energy in a training program, focusing on high-impact methods that maximize performance gains relative to resource investment, ensuring that each session contributes directly to an athlete’s targeted adaptations without excess fatigue or wasted effort.
Section 1: Training Methods to Maximize Effort
1) Psychological Preparation and Readiness
Effort is highly dependent on motivation, focus, confidence, and energy.
Motivation can be increased by seeing competence levels increase over time. Improved technical development is a great area to emphasize since improved technique can also increase efficiency as well.
Focus can be enhanced by blocking out distractions (e.g., headphones and favorite music). For hypertrophy work, an internal mental focus on specific muscle contractions is most effective (i.e., the mind-muscle connection). For strength work, an external focus is best.
Confidence can be increased through the use of overloading variations. Board presses with 90% of your comp bench 1RM can help make 1RM level weights feel more familiar, without needing to strain over the full range of motion. Essentially, you get comfortable with the weight and feel of max weights without the cost.
Reducing the fatigue from individual training sessions allows a fresher state of being for the next training session. This can keep energy levels high over time.
The impact of self-efficacy on performance in sport: A meta-analysis Moritz, S.E., et al. (2000). Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22(2), 147-165.
The effects of music on exercise performance: A meta-analysis Karageorghis, C.I., & Jones, L. (2014). Sports Medicine, 44(8), 1093-1109.
2) Motor Unit Recruitment
Motor unit recruitment (MUR) can be increased by using weights closer to your 1RM. However, MUR typically maxes out by 80-85% 1RM. So that’s all you need if this is your only goal. Below 80% you can attempt to maximize the velocity of your lifts to achieve the same effect.
Motor unit recruitment plays an important role in determining the relationship between force and force variability Slifkin, A.B., & Newell, K.M. (2000). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26(5), 1615-1628
Motor Unit Recruitment and the Gradation of Muscle Force Clamann, H.P. (1993). Physical Therapy, 73(12), 830-843
3) Motor Unit Firing Rate
Beyond 85%, increased force can’t come from recruiting any additional motor units. The only way force can increase is for the for the motor units to twitch at an even higher rate. If you find your strength drops off faster than anticipated above 85%, occasional heavy singles at 90% can help. Just be sure to use them sparingly.
Motor unit recruitment by size does not provide functional advantages for force generation Heckman, C.J., & Enoka, R.M. (2012). Journal of Physiology, 590(10), 2271-2280
Section 2: Training Methods to Enhance Efficiency
4) Improved Technique
Repetition and practice with a variety slightly altered circumstances can help improve technique.
Doing 5×5 at a weight just below the point where form begins to deviate can be a great way to solidify technique. This point is typically where the sticking point first shows in a velocity vs ROM plot and often around 70% 1RM.
Another method that can improve technique is to slightly change the demands of the lift between sets. Doing a set of 3 @70% after a set of 5 @70% will feel slightly different. Even more so if the next set is 8 @70%. At the end of the day, it was the same lift, with the same weight, but practiced in a variety of circumstances. That can build proficiency and resilience.
Finally, if some specific aspect of a lift is technically weak, target it with a corrective variation. For example, you’re weak off the chest in the bench press and have a habit of bouncing the bar to compensate. Continuing to bounce will not address the problem. But using a paused variation of the bench can help.
The effects of training on movement technique in resistance exercise McBride, J.M., et al. (2009). Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(1), 96-102.
5) Intermuscular Coordination
In a compound lift, such as the bench press, multiple muscle groups need to coordinate their activities during the lift. However, it’s not as simple as simultaneously activating them all. They need to balance their activities and time them appropriately. Further complicating the matter is that not all weights will require the same coordination pattern. Heavy weights increase the activity of the triceps near lockout more than the same weight increases the activity of the pectorals near the chest.
Simply put, train at the velocity you intend to test. For 1RMs, that means low speed practice, either at heavy weights or intentionally slow with lighter weights.
Intermuscular coordination during human locomotion Kautz, S.A., & Hull, M.L. (1993). Journal of Biomechanics, 26(6), 609-617.
6) Reduced Antagonistic Co-activation
Antagonistic co-activation refers to the simultaneous activation of agonist and antagonist muscle groups around a joint. While some level of antagonistic co-activation contributes to joint stability and control, particularly during complex or uncertain movements, excessive co-activation can hinder performance by reducing the effective force output. This balance between stability and force production is critical; athletes often need to find an optimal level of co-activation that supports stability without compromising their ability to generate force efficiently.
You can train this quality by increasing the volume of reps over time done with heavy weights. The best way to do that is lots of heavy yet low fatigue sets. Practice makes perfect.
Antagonistic Co-contraction Can Minimize Muscular Effort. Häkkinen, K., & Komi, P.V. (1983). European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 51(3), 249-255. Available at: PMC.
Section 3: Training Methods to Strengthen Architecture
7) Muscle Hypertrophy
Speaking strictly about muscle volume, added size can improve your leverages. It can make your bench press ROM shorter, give you something to bounce off of in the squat, and make your tendons connect to bones at more advantageous angles. Training for hypertrophy is best done with isolation, or similarly restricted, exercises so you can ensure you stimulate the desired target. You also want to use a moderate rep range and accumulate a good degree of fatigue during your set. For the chest, that might mean doing machine bench press with a focus on partials near the chest for sets of 10-15 reps, taken close to failure.
The role of muscle hypertrophy in strength training Schoenfeld, B.J. (2010). Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2857-2872.
8) Myofibrillar Density
Muscle hypertrophy can be classified into different types:
Sarcoplasmic Hypertrophy: Involves an increase in the volume of sarcoplasm relative to myofibrils, which may not contribute as directly to force production but can support energy demands during prolonged activities
Myofibrillar Hypertrophy: Involves an increase in the size and number of myofibrils, contributing directly to strength gains.
Density is what you want to train for if strength is the goal. That means low reps, heavy weight, and yet low fatigue so that you can accumulate sufficient volume.
As a bonus, higher density facilitates greater bridging between fibers, which brings us to our next item: lateral force transmission.
Exercise-Induced Myofibrillar Hypertrophy is a Contributory Cause of Strength Gains. Miller, B.F., et al. (2019). Sports Medicine. Available at: Springer.
Myofibril and Mitochondrial Area Changes in Type I and II Fibers Following Resistance Training. Haun, C.T., et al. (2020). PMC. Available at: PMC.
Skeletal Muscle Myofibrillar Protein Abundance Is Higher in Resistance-Trained Men. Roberts, B.M., et al. (2021). PMC. Available at: PMC.
9) Lateral Force Transmission
Only 20-30% of force is translated directly along the length of muscle fibers when fibers contract. The majority of force is transmitted laterally to neighboring fibers and tissues via tiny linkages called costameres.
This mode of force transmission is vital during heavy lifts and increasing the efficiency of this system can boost effective force output without any change in energy input.
The good news is that you only need regular use of heavy lifts to enhance lateral force transmission.
Transmission of Forces within Mammalian Skeletal Muscles Tidball, J.G., et al. (1998). Journal of Biomechanics, 31(11), 1063-1070. Available at: ScienceDirect.
Finite Element Analysis of Mechanics of Lateral Transmission of Force Trotter, J.A., & Purslow, P.P. (2011). Journal of Biomechanics, 44(10), 1871-1877. Available at: PMC.
Measurement of Lateral Transmission of Force in the Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle Sato, K., et al. (2011). International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(22), 12356. Available at: MDPI.
Myofascial Force Transmission Huijing, P.A. (2012). In Encyclopedia of Exercise Medicine in Health and Disease. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Available at: SpringerLink.
Lateral Force Transmission Across Costameres in Skeletal Muscle Ramaswamy, S., et al. (2003). PubMed Central. Available at: PubMed.
On Lateral Transmission of Force in Active Intact Muscle Huijing, P.A., & de Haan, A. (1999). Journal of Biomechanics, 32(4), 329-345. Available at: PMC.
10) Tendon Stiffness
There are two key mechanisms that increased tendon stiffness will help increase strength:
Force Transmission
A stiffer tendon can transmit forces more effectively from the muscle to the bone, allowing for greater force output. This is because a stiffer tendon minimizes energy loss during the transfer of force, ensuring that more of the muscular effort contributes directly to movement.
Energy Storage and Release
Tendons have elastic properties that allow them to store elastic energy during eccentric contractions (when muscles lengthen under tension) and release it during subsequent concentric contractions (when muscles shorten). Increased tendon stiffness enhances this energy storage capacity, enabling muscles to utilize stored energy more efficiently during dynamic movements. This mechanism is particularly important in activities that involve stretch-shortening cycles, such as 1RM tests, where tendons act as springs .
Tendon stiffness is best trained with weights heavy enough to significantly lower velocity. So that means regular use of heavy weights and occasional use of overloading variations.
Effect of Training-Induced Changes in Achilles Tendon Stiffness on Muscle Strength. M. K. K. K. H. M. L. M. A. (2018). Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 794. Available at: Frontiers in Physiology.
Transmission of Forces within Mammalian Skeletal Muscles. Monti, A., et al. (1999). Journal of Biomechanics, 32(4), 329-345. Available at: ScienceDirect.
Practical Application
Key points:
- Although these ten qualities are segregated into three categories, most of them overlap to some degree and could also fall under the efficiency umbrella.
- Effort is the quality most sensitive to change, yet critically important. Efficiency is best trained through volume of practice over time. Assuming effort is constant, efficiency is, therefore, the dominant principle of strength training.
- You need a training program that varies over time in what it attempts to train.
- Check the dates on the references. Many of them indicate we’ve known how to train for strength for a long time.
If you’ve made it this far, you’ll have noticed that attributes can be targeted with light or heavy weights, fast or slow movements, and with low or high levels of fatigue.
Some of these differences can not be resolved, which prevents simultaneous use for maximum effect. For example, maximizing effort and motor unit recruitment requires low levels of fatigue. Low levels of fatigue can also translate into higher frequency and therefore more practice with specific lifts. Meanwhile, maximizing hypertrophy requires higher levels of fatigue. This necessitates lower frequency to allow for recovery, and therefore less practice with specific lifts.
Group the attributes that can be successfully trained together and periodize those that can’t. Hypertrophy gained in one training phase can persist during a strength training phase, and vice versa.
The easy solution is to put high-fatigue work into the off-season and all things efficiency into regular season training where you spend most of your time. Hopefully, that solution aligns with your psychological preferences. If not, things get more complicated because any misalignment is likely to reduce effort.
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